The Division of Labor in Society

The Division of Labor in Society by Émile Durkheim is a doctoral dissertation first published in 1893. It is most notable for using the scientific method to explain social phenomena, and it is widely considered one of the foundational works in modern sociology. Durkheim, along with other theorists such as Max Weber and Karl Marx, is considered a founder of the field. In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim explores how modern societies remain cohesive and harmonious despite the gradual decay of traditional and religious institutions, which previously bound individuals to the collective. He concludes that the division of labor gives rise to an organic type of solidarity that finds strength in diversity and codependence rather than uniformity.

This guide refers to the New York Free Press edition published in 1997.

Content Warning: The Division of Labor in Society reprises common racist beliefs based on social Darwinism, which applies the laws of natural selection to people and has since been discredited. Durkheim’s work employs offensive slurs such as “savage” and “primitive” to refer to certain communities. This type of language is now widely considered inappropriate and offensive in serious academic work. Although this guide does not avoid the use of these terms in order to remain functionally consistent with the original, it will always refer to them in quotation marks to emphasize their purpose as paraphrasing Durkheim’s vocabulary. They are not the result of a deliberate choice. As they appear throughout this entire guide, they will not be preceded with additional content warnings.

Summary

The Division of Labor in Society is separated into three books. The first book is separated into seven chapters and includes an Introduction, the main purpose of which is to delineate Durkheim’s methodology and elaborate on his theory on the division of labor. In this first section, Durkheim posits that the division of labor is the result of human evolution and is also the social glue binding individuals to their communities in the modern world.

The Introduction includes Durkheim’s central main thesis and an analysis of the modern phenomenon of the division of labor. Chapter 1 is an overview of Durkheim’s methodology and his scientific approach. Chapter 2 introduces the concept of a mechanical solidarity, one that ties individuals through reinforcing similar beliefs. Chapter 3 explores organic solidarity, which arises from the division of labor, as the antithesis to mechanical solidarity.

Chapter 4 uses several case studies to reinforce the core principles presented in the previous two chapters. It argues that mechanical solidarity is the fabric of “primitive” societies, whereas organic solidarity is the result of the division of labor. Chapter 5 surveys human history and argues that “advanced” societies have increasingly adopted a social framework based on organic solidarity. Chapter 6 is an extension of Chapter 5 and uses English philosopher Herbert Spencer’s theory of evolution to explain the causes and consequences of the division of labor. Chapter 7 concludes the first third of Durkheim’s dissertation and refutes the idea that contracts are solely responsible for social harmony.

Book II’s purpose is to explore the various causes and conditions that have given rise to the division of labor. It is separated into five chapters. Chapter 1 refutes the popular theory that the division of labor is the result of a human quest for happiness. Chapter 2 dismisses the division of labor as born purely out of an economic desire for enrichment. Chapters 3 and 4 observe that the division of labor can only progress if the common consciousness, the foundational element of mechanical solidarity, weakens. Chapter 5 anticipates future consequences to the division of labor by measuring its historic progress.

The final third of The Division of Labor in Society is concerned with exploring exceptional instances where Durkheim’s theory does not apply. Book III comprises three chapters and a Conclusion. Chapters 1-3 each discuss an abnormal type of the division of labor; Durkheim explains them as reinforcing rather than weakening his theory.

The first abnormal form is when the division of labor does not bring about organic solidarity; the second abnormal form is when the division of labor does not occur naturally but is forced upon a society; and finally, the third abnormal form is when the division of labor fails to adequately distribute social functions, thus threatening social harmony. In the Conclusion, Durkheim argues that these exceptions arise because the division of labor is not foolproof, and that each can be fixed given proper regulatory measures or an adequate environment. The Division of Labor in Society ultimately asserts that specialization is both a moral endeavor and a natural step in human evolution.