The Histories

The Histories by Publius Cornelius Tacitus is a second-century historical work that originally chronicled the Roman Empire from the death of Nero in 69 CE to the end of the Flavian dynasty in 96 CE. Tacitus was a Roman senator and politician who began The Histories while retired, completing them around 109 CE. He followed this work by writing several smaller texts including The Annals, a history of Rome from the reign of Tiberius in 14 CE to the death of Nero. However, portions of The Annals and all The Histories after Book 5 have been lost, meaning that his narrative extends only to the opening months of 70 CE. The Histories have become a crucial source of information about 69 CE, dubbed the “Year of the Four Emperors” for the series of civil wars that wracked Rome. Tacitus’s analytical historical style has also been influential for many subsequent writers. In his work, Tacitus explores themes such as The Instability and Societal Upheaval Brought by Successive Crises, The Corrupting Influence of Power, and Roman Identity in the Principate.

This guide refers to the 2006 Penguin Classics edition, translated by Kenneth Wellesley and with an introduction by Rhiannon Ash.

Content Warning: The Histories includes descriptions of warfare and attacks against civilians; mentions of sexual violence, suicide, and enslavement; and an antisemitic description of Jewish history and culture. This guide touches on all these topics.

Summary

The Histories is comprised of four complete books and one partially complete book detailing Roman history from 69-70 CE. Tacitus begins by briefly outlining the setting and scope of his work. After this, the historical narrative begins in Rome a few days after the start of the year 69 CE, with the emperor Servius Sulpicius Galba learning that legions on the Rhine frontier were in revolt. The previous year, Galba led a revolt against Nero, the last emperor of the Julio-Claudians. Since taking office, Galba had been making himself increasingly unpopular through his stinginess and brutality, as well as through the corruption of his advisors. Galba, an old man, decided to secure his regime by adopting a leading Roman as his heir. After much debate, he settled on Piso Licinianus, a Roman aristocrat with a good reputation. A different Roman aristocrat named Marcus Salvius Otho had hoped to be appointed to this role and felt robbed of the position. He bribed members of the already disgruntled Praetorian Guard (a Roman army unit tasked with protecting the emperor) and other local forces to back him in a coup. On the 15th of January, this coup occurred. Otho’s troops founded and murdered Galba, Piso, and Galba’s key advisors. Otho was then declared emperor in Rome.

At the beginning of the year, the Rhine legions had rebelled against Galba and elected Aulus Vitellius as their new emperor. Vitellius and his generals, Alienus Caecina and Fabius Valens, gathered support in Germany and Gaul before moving toward Italy. Vitellius, a generally lazy man, lagged behind while Caecina and Valens each led a bloody march into Italy, ransacking the areas they passed through. Otho sent forces to confront this invasion. After skirmishing, the Othonian forces defeated Caecina’s army but were then themselves defeated by the combined forces of Valens and Caecina in the First Battle of Bedriacum. Otho chose to die by suicide rather than prolong the fighting. As these events were occurring, in the eastern provinces, the Roman general Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian) was colluding with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, but they had not yet decided to revolt.

Vitellius had not yet entered Italy when his forces won the civil war. Once he learned that Otho was dead, he led a slow march toward Rome. This march picked up many followers as it went, and Vitellius frequently indulged in banquets, a particular passion of his. Tacitus describes his army as becoming debauched and savage at this point. Once in Rome, Vitellius left much of the governing to Valens and Caecina and focused on pleasures. He allowed his army to do the same, weakening them physically and sapping their vigor. In Judea, Vespasian was convinced by Mucianus and soothsayers of the need to rebel against Vitellius. Once this rebellion was announced, it quickly gathered momentum, with all the provinces from Egypt to the Balkans declaring for Vespasian. Vitellius reacted sluggishly, eventually sending Caecina to garrison northern Italy, but by this time, Caecina’s loyalty was wavering.

Mucianus was tasked with leading the forces of the East overland to invade Italy, while Vespasian would occupy Egypt and stop the essential grain shipments to Rome. While he was still on route, a commander in the Balkans named Antonius Primus convinced his fellow generals of the need for a quick invasion. Caecina soon deserted the Vitellian side and tried to convince his army to do the same, but he failed. Primus led the Flavians during the Second Battle of Bedriacum, in which combat lasted throughout the day and night before the Vitellian army finally fled. Following this, Primus attacked the legionary camp at Cremona and then sacked the city for four days.

Vitellius continued to live luxuriously and ignore responsibilities while sending Valens to attack the Flavians. Valens was soon captured and killed while sailing to Gaul. Vitellius then tried to negotiate a surrender with Vespasian’s brother, who was in Rome, but was blocked from doing this by his supporters. Fighting broke out inside Rome between Flavian and Vitellian supporters, in which a fire started on the Capitoline Hill, many ancient temples were burnt, and Vespasian’s brother was killed. After this, Primus arrived at Rome, which he conquered. Vitellius was killed in the street fighting.

Following the Flavian victory, violence continued in Rome for some time because of the chaos of the civil war. Primus was in control of the city and stole large amounts from the treasury, while Vespasian’s son Titus Flavius Domitianus (Domitian) became infamous for his immorality. Eventually, Mucianus arrived in the city and removed Primus from power. By this time, many in Rome were becoming aware of a revolt in Germany and Gaul.

This revolt was led by the Batavians, a tribe that lived in modern-day Netherlands, whom the Romans had previously conquered. During the Flavian-Vitellian war, Primus tasked a leader among the Batavians called Julius Civilis to distract the Vitellian forces in Gaul. Civilis saw an opportunity for independence, so he agreed. The revolt began and picked up momentum as they were able to surprise and defeat several Roman units. More tribes soon joined their cause, and they besieged the main local legionary camp at Vetera. During this siege, Civilis gave up the pretense of fighting for the Flavians. The Roman general Vocula counterattacked and achieved considerable success but was unable to relieve Vetera for long. Several Gallic tribes joined the rebellion, and some of Vocula’s own legions decided to defect. Vocula was soon murdered.

In Rome, with the start of the year 70, Mucianus and Domitian planned to quash the rebellion, but Mucianus was worried about giving Domitian command of an army. He eventually talked Domitian out of leading from the front while a Roman general called Petilius Cerialis took command of the forces in Gaul. Cerialis was quickly able to regain the initiative, which caused the defected legions and several of the Gallic tribes to turn back to Rome’s side. After several successful battles, the Batavian rebels were confined to their original homeland.

Tacitus here includes a brief story about Vespasian in Alexandria, where he was supposedly healing people through touch. He then introduces the First Jewish-Roman War, which had been occurring in the background of the narrative up to this point. To do so, Tacitus gives a history of the Jewish people, a description of their culture and of the land they lived in, all of which is used to frame them as inferior to the Romans. By this time, Titus (Vespasian’s eldest son) was leading the siege of Jerusalem while Vespasian prepared to sail to Rome.

In Germany, many rebels were considering surrender after another Batavian defeat. Civilis preempted this by trying to negotiate a deal for himself. The books cut off with Civilis trying to convince the Romans to spare him.